How our visual perception system unconsciously affects our preferences | KurzweilAI

The valence continuum in (A) illustrates the dimension of valence ranging from strongly positive (red) to strongly negative (blue). As indicated by the dashed gray line, objects perceived to have a valence close to the neutral point on the continuum are nonetheless regarded as having a micro-valence (subtle affective valences). In (B) the portion of the continuum encompassed by the gray line in (A) has been expanded to represent a finer-grained continuum. The ordering of objects here reflects this expanded continuum, albeit with lesser magnitudes (S. Lebrecht et al./Frontiers in Perception Science)

The brain’s visual perception system automatically and unconsciously guides decision-making through valence perception, new research from Carnegie Mellon University’s Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition (CNBC) shows .

Valence — the positive or negative information automatically perceived in the majority of visual information — integrates visual features and associations from experience with similar objects or features. In other words, it is the process that allows our brains to rapidly make choices between similar objects.

The findings offer important insights into consumer behavior in ways that traditional consumer marketing focus groups cannot address. For example, asking individuals to react to package designs, ads or logos is simply ineffective. Instead, companies can use this type of brain science to more effectively assess how unconscious visual valence perception contributes to consumer behavior.

To transfer the research’s scientific application to the online video market, the CMU research team is in the process of founding the start-up company neonlabs through the support of the National Science Foundation (NSF) Innovation Corps (I-Corps).

“This basic research into how visual object recognition interacts with and is influenced by affect paints a much richer picture of how we see objects,” said Michael J. Tarr, the George A. and Helen Dunham Cowan Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience and co-director of the CNBC. “What we now know is that common, household objects carry subtle positive or negative valences and that these valences have an impact on our day-to-day behavior.”

The researchers are launching neonlabs to apply their model of visual preference to increase click rates on online videos, by identifying the most visually appealing thumbnail from a stream of video. The web-based software product selects a thumbnail based on neuroimaging data on object perception and valence, crowd-sourced behavioral data, and proprietary computational analyses of large amounts of video streams.

“Everything you see, you automatically dislike or like, prefer or don’t prefer, in part, because of valence perception,” said  Sophie Lebrecht, lead author of the study and the entrepreneurial lead for the I-Corps grant. “Valence links what we see in the world to how we make decisions.

“Talking with companies such as YouTube and Hulu, we realized that they are looking for ways to keep users on their sites longer by clicking to watch more videos. Thumbnails are a huge problem for any online video publisher, and our research fits perfectly with this problem. Our approach streamlines the process and chooses the screenshot that is the most visually appealing based on science, which will in the end result in more user clicks.”

Ref.: Sophie Lebrecht, Moshe Bar, Lisa Feldman Barrett, Michael J. Tarr, Micro-valences: perceiving affective valence in everyday objects, Frontiers in Perception Science, 2012, DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00107 (open access)

via kurzweilai.net

Getting smarter while getting older | News | News and events

News

Getting smarter while getting older

Brains that maintain healthy nerve connections as we age help keep us sharp in later life.

An Age UK-funded project at the University has found that older people with robust brain wiring – that is, the nerve fibres that connect different, distant brain areas – can process information quickly and that this makes them generally smarter.

According to the findings, joining distant parts of the brain together with better wiring improves mental performance, suggesting that intelligence is not found in a single part of the brain.

White matter

Our results suggest a first plausible way how brain structure differences lead to higher intelligence. The results are exciting for our understanding of human intelligence differences at all ages.

Dr Lars Penke

School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences

A loss of condition of this wiring or white matter – the billions of nerve fibres that transmit signals around the brain – can negatively affect our intelligence by altering these networks and slowing down our processing speed.

This is the first time it has been shown that the deterioration of white matter with age is likely to be a significant cause of age-related cognitive decline.

Brain imaging

The research team used three different brain imaging techniques in compiling the results, including two that have never been used before in the study of intelligence.

These techniques measure the amount of water in brain tissue, indicate structural loss in the brain, and show how well the nerve fibres are insulated.

Large study

The research team is now looking at what keeps the brain’s connections healthy. We value our thinking skills, and research should address how we might retain them or slow their decline with age.

Professor Ian Deary

School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences

Researchers examined scans and results of thinking and reaction time tests from 420 people in the Lothian Birth Cohort of 1936.

This is a group of nearly 1100 people whose intelligence and general health have been tracked since they were 11 years old.

The research was part of the Disconnected Mind Project, a large study of the causes of people’s differences in cognitive ageing, led by Professor Ian Deary.

It was published in the journal Molecular Psychiatry.

The results suggest a clear target for seeking treatment for mental difficulties, be they pathological or age-related. That the brain’s nerve connections tend to stay the same throughout the brain means we can now look at factors that affect the overall condition of the brain, like its bloody supply.

Dr Lars Penke

School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences

Related links

• School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences
• Disconnected Mind Project

This article was published on May 22, 2012

via ed.ac.uk

Learning and memory : the role of neo-neurons revealed – CNRS Web site – CNRS

Paris, 14 May 2012

Learning and memory : the role of neo-neurons revealed

Researchers at the Institut Pasteur and the CNRS have recently identified in mice the role played by neo-neurons formed in the adult brain. By using selective stimulation the researchers were able to show that these neo-neurons increase the ability to learn and memorize difficult cognitive tasks. This newly discovered characteristic of neo-neurons to assimilate complex information could open up new avenues in the treatment of some neurodegenerative diseases. This publication is available online on the Nature Neuroscience journal’s website.

The discovery that new neurons could be formed in the adult brain created quite a stir in 2003 by debunking the age-old belief that a person is born with a set number of neurons and that any loss of neurons is irreversible. This discovery was all the more incredible considering that the function of these new neurons remained undetermined. That is, until today.

Using mice models the team working under Pierre-Marie Lledo, head of the Laboratory for Perception and Memory (Institut Pasteur/CNRS) recently revealed the role of these neo-neurons formed in the adult brain with respect to learning and memory. With the help of an experimental approach using optogenetics*, developed by this very same team and published in December 2010, the researchers were able to show that when stimulated by a brief flash of light these neo-neurons facilitate both learning and the memorization of complex tasks. This resulted in mice models that were able to memorize information given during the learning activity more quickly and remember exercises even 50 days after experimentation had ended. The study also shows that neo-neurons generated just after birth hold no added advantages as relates to either learning or memory. In this respect it is only the neurons produced by the adult brain that have any considerable significance.

“This study shows that the activity of just a few neurons produced in the adult brain can still have considerable effects on cognitive processes and behavior. Moreover, this work helps to illustrate how the brain assimilates new stimulations seeing as normally electrical activity (which we mimic using flashes of light) is produced within the brain’s attention centers”, explains the study’s director Pierre-Marie Lledo.

Beyond simply discovering the functional contribution of these neo-neurons, the study has also reaffirmed the clear link between “mood” (defined here by a specific pattern of stimulation) and cerebral activity. It has been shown that curiosity, attentiveness and pleasure all promote the formation of neo-neurons and consequently the acquisition of new cognitive abilities. Conversely, a state of depression is detrimental to the production of new neurons and triggers a vicious cycle which prolongs this state of despondency. These results, and the optogenetics technologies that enabled this study, may prove very useful for devising therapeutic protocols which aim to counter the development of neurologic or psychiatric diseases.

via www2.cnrs.fr

Research | Research news | Zooming in on bacterial weapons in 3D

Zooming in on bacterial weapons in 3D

Max Planck scientists decipher the structure of bacterial injection needles at atomic resolution

May 21, 2012

The plague, bacterial dysentery, and cholera have one thing in common: These dangerous diseases are caused by bacteria which infect their host using a sophisticated injection apparatus. Through needle-like structures, they release molecular agents into their host cell, thereby evading the immune response. Researchers at the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry in Göttingen in cooperation with colleagues at the Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology in Berlin and the University of Washington in Seattle (USA) have now elucidated the structure of such a needle at atomic resolution. Their findings might contribute to drug tailoring and the development of strategies which specifically prevent the infection process.

Zoom Image

© Christian Goosmann, Diane Schad, Rashmi Gupta and Michael Kolbe

Hundreds of tiny hollow needles sticking out of the bacterial membrane – it is a treacherous tool that makes pathogens causing plague or cholera so dangerous. Together with a base, embedded in the membrane, these miniature syringes constitute the so-called type III secretion system – an injection apparatus through which the pathogens introduce molecular agents into their host cell. There, these substances manipulate essential metabolic processes and disable the immune defence of the infected cells. The consequences are fatal as the pathogens can now spread within the organism without hindrance. To date, traditional antibiotics are prescribed to fight the infection. However, as some bacterial strains succeed in developing resistances, researchers worldwide seek to discover more specific drugs.

The exact structure of the 60 to 80 nanometre (60 to 80 millionths of a millimetre) long and about eight nanometre wide needles has so far been unknown. Classical methods such as X-ray crystallography or electron microscopy failed or yielded wrong model structures. Not crystallisable and insoluble, the needle resisted all attempts to decode its atomic structure. Therefore Adam Lange and Stefan Becker at the Max Planck Institute  for Biophysical Chemistry together with a team of physicists, biologists and chemists chose a completely novel approach. In cooperation with David Baker at the University of Washington, and Michael Kolbe at the Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, the scientists successfully combined the production of the needle in the laboratory with solid-state NMR spectroscopy, electron microscopy, and computer modelling. The researchers deciphered the structure of the needle atom by atom and visualised its molecular architecture for the first time in the angstrom range, a resolution of less than a tenth of a millionth of a millimetre.

This required progresses in several fields. “We have made big steps forward concerning sample production as well as solid-state NMR spectroscopy,” says Adam Lange. “Finally, we were also able to use one of the presently most powerful solid-state NMR spectrometers in Christian Griesinger’s NMR-based Structural Biology Department at our Institute.” With 20 tesla, the magnetic field of this 850 megahertz spectrometer is about 400,000 times as strong as that of the earth.

Zoom Image

© MPI for Biophysical Chemistry, Christian Goosmann, Michael Kolbe

“We were surprised to see how the needles are constructed,” says Lange. As expected, the needles of pathogens causing diseases as diverse as food poisoning, bacterial dysentery, or the plague show striking similarities. However, in contrast to prevailing assumptions, the similarities are found in the inner part of the needles whereas the surface is astonishingly variable. According to the scientist, this variability might be a strategy of the bacteria to evade immune recognition by the host. Changes on the surface of the needle make it difficult for the host’s immune system to recognize the pathogen.

The scientists Lange, Kolbe, Becker, and their Max Planck colleagues Christian Griesinger und Arturo Zychlinsky, have focused on the bacterial injection apparatus for several years. Together with the Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing they already showed in 2010 how bacteria assemble their miniature syringes. The discovery of their structure in atomic detail not only enables researchers to  gain new insights into how these pathogens outwit their host cells, it also offers the prospect to block the syringe assembly and the delivery of the bacterial factors using tailored molecules. Such substances, referred to as antiinfectives, could act more specifically and much earlier during infection than traditional antibiotics. “Thanks to our new technique, we can produce large amounts of needles in the lab. Our aim is now to develop a high-throughput method. This will allow us to search for new agents that prevent the formation of the needle,” explains Stefan Becker.

CR/HR

via mpg.de

Smart Meter Switch – Control energy – British Gas

The Smart Meter upgrade – our commitment to you

We’re dedicated to putting your needs first as we install Smart Meters to homes across the UK, and our customer charter sets out our commitment to you. Our customers are at the heart of our Smart Meter programme – interviews from 15,000 of our customers who already have Smart Meters have helped shaped our plans and on-going feedback is ensuring that your needs are right at the centre of our programme roll out.

 

Read our Smart Meter customer charter

via britishgas.co.uk

The rootkit of all evil — CIQ | KurzweilAI

Carrier iQ software log (credit: xdavevelopers)

CarrierIQ (CIQ), hidden surveillance software, is embedded into most mobile devices, including Android, Nokia, Blackberry, and likely many more, with root access (a vendor or hacker could take over the device), xdadevelopers reports.

A developer discovered that this hidden software, normally used to provide feedback and relevant data, is given root rights over the device, which means that it can do everything it pleases, without the user’s knowledge or control.

For example, if Google’s vision of Android@Home comes true, manufacturers will know how long you spend in each room of your house, based on when you flip the light switch, and so on. There is the very real possibility of exploits that could also give criminals all this information, xdadevelopers reports in a follow-up article.

At the moment, the only people with Android phones who are able to escape CarrierIQ are users who are brave enough to root their own phones and flash a ROM that does not have the CarrierIQ software integrated with the operating system, like CyanogenMod, geek.com reports.

via kurzweilai.net

A $74 PC | KurzweilAI

A $74 PC

May 21, 2012

A Chinese manufacturer has introduced the Model MK802, a $74 USB thumb-drive sized computer, liliputing reports, beating the FXI Cotton Candy PC on a stick to market (it will be available soon for $200).

[+]

(Credit: Allwinner)

The MK802 is available from AliExpress for $74, or less if you order in bulk. It has a 1.5 GHz Allwiner A10 processor, 512MB of RAM, 4GB of storage, USB port, microSD card slot, and HDMI port. It also features 802.11b/g WiFi and support for HD video playback in a variety of media formats.

It ships with Google Android 4.0 software, but theoretically you should be able to install Ubuntu or other operating systems.

Zero Devices is preparing to launch the Z802 which looks nearly identical, except for the Zero Devices logo on the front of the device, and available for pre-order from some sources for about $76.

via kurzweilai.net

Dartmouth researchers are learning how exercise affects the brain

Public release date: 18-May-2012
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Contact: Joseph Blumberg
joseph.e.blumberg@dartmouth.edu
603-646-2117
Dartmouth College

		IMAGE: As a graduate student working with Dartmouth associate professor of Psychological and Brain Sciences David Bucci (right), Michael Hopkins took the lead in conducting much of experimental studies on the… Click here for more information.

Exercise clears the mind. It gets the blood pumping and more oxygen is delivered to the brain. This is familiar territory, but Dartmouth’s David Bucci thinks there is much more going on.

“In the last several years there have been data suggesting that neurobiological changes are happening—[there are] very brain-specific mechanisms at work here,” says Bucci, an associate professor in the Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences.

From his studies, Bucci and his collaborators have revealed important new findings:

• The effects of exercise are different on memory as well as on the brain, depending on whether the exerciser is an adolescent or an adult.
• A gene has been identified which seems to mediate the degree to which exercise has a beneficial effect. This has implications for the potential use of exercise as an intervention for mental illness.

Bucci began his pursuit of the link between exercise and memory with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), one of the most common childhood psychological disorders. Bucci is concerned that the treatment of choice seems to be medication.

“The notion of pumping children full of psycho-stimulants at an early age is troublesome,” Bucci cautions. “We frankly don’t know the long-term effects of administering drugs at an early age—drugs that affect the brain—so looking for alternative therapies is clearly important.”

Anecdotal evidence from colleagues at the University of Vermont started Bucci down the track of ADHD. Based on observations of ADHD children in Vermont summer camps, athletes or team sports players were found to respond better to behavioral interventions than more sedentary children. While systematic empirical data is lacking, this association of exercise with a reduction of characteristic ADHD behaviors was persuasive enough for Bucci.

Coupled with his interest in learning and memory and their underlying brain functions, Bucci and teams of graduate and undergraduate students embarked upon a project of scientific inquiry, investigating the potential connection between exercise and brain function. They published papers documenting their results, with the most recent now available in the online version of the journal Neuroscience .

via eurekalert.org

NIH study finds that coffee drinkers have lower risk of death, May 16, 2012 News Release – National Institutes of Health (NIH)

Embargoed for Release
Wednesday, May 16, 2012
5 p.m. EDT

Contact:
NCI Office of Media Relations
(301) 496-6641

NIH study finds that coffee drinkers have lower risk of death

Older adults who drank coffee — caffeinated or decaffeinated — had a lower risk of death overall than others who did not drink coffee, according a study by researchers from the National Cancer Institute (NCI), part of the National Institutes of Health, and AARP.

Coffee drinkers were less likely to die from heart disease, respiratory disease, stroke, injuries and accidents, diabetes, and infections, although the association was not seen for cancer. These results from a large study of older adults were observed after adjustment for the effects of other risk factors on mortality, such as smoking and alcohol consumption. Researchers caution, however, that they can’t be sure whether these associations mean that drinking coffee actually makes people live longer. The results of the study were published in the May 17, 2012 edition of the New England Journal of Medicine.

Neal Freedman, Ph.D., Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, NCI, and his colleagues examined the association between coffee drinking and risk of death in 400,000 U.S. men and women ages 50 to 71 who participated in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. Information about coffee intake was collected once by questionnaire at study entry in 1995-1996. The participants were followed until the date they died or Dec. 31, 2008, whichever came first.

The researchers found that the association between coffee and reduction in risk of death increased with the amount of coffee consumed. Relative to men and women who did not drink coffee, those who consumed three or more cups of coffee per day had approximately a 10 percent lower risk of death. Coffee drinking was not associated with cancer mortality among women, but there was a slight and only marginally statistically significant association of heavier coffee intake with increased risk of cancer death among men.

“Coffee is one of the most widely consumed beverages in America, but the association between coffee consumption and risk of death has been unclear. We found coffee consumption to be associated with lower risk of death overall, and of death from a number of different causes,” said Freedman. “Although we cannot infer a causal relationship between coffee drinking and lower risk of death, we believe these results do provide some reassurance that coffee drinking does not adversely affect health.”

The investigators caution that coffee intake was assessed by self-report at a single time point and therefore might not reflect long-term patterns of intake. Also, information was not available on how the coffee was prepared (espresso, boiled, filtered, etc.); the researchers consider it possible that preparation methods may affect the levels of any protective components in coffee.

“The mechanism by which coffee protects against risk of death — if indeed the finding reflects a causal relationship — is not clear, because coffee contains more than 1,000 compounds that might potentially affect health,” said Freedman. “The most studied compound is caffeine, although our findings were similar in those who reported the majority of their coffee intake to be caffeinated or decaffeinated.”

The National Cancer Institute (NCI) leads the National Cancer Program and the NIH effort to dramatically reduce the burden of cancer and improve the lives of cancer patients and their families, through research into prevention and cancer biology, the development of new interventions, and the training and mentoring of new researchers. For more information about cancer, please visit the NCI Web site at http://www.cancer.gov or call NCI’s Cancer Information Service at 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237).

About the National Institutes of Health (NIH): NIH, the nation’s medical research agency, includes 27 Institutes and Centers and is a component of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIH is the primary federal agency conducting and supporting basic, clinical, and translational medical research, and is investigating the causes, treatments, and cures for both common and rare diseases. For more information about NIH and its programs, visit www.nih.gov.

NIH…Turning Discovery Into Health

References: Freedman ND, et. al. The Association of Coffee Drinking with Total and Cause-Specific Mortality, NEJM, May 17, 2012.

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via nih.gov

Berkeley Lab Scientists Generate Electricity From Viruses « Berkeley Lab News Center

News Release

Imagine charging your phone as you walk, thanks to a paper-thin generator embedded in the sole of your shoe. This futuristic scenario is now a little closer to reality. Scientists from the U.S. Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) have developed a way to generate power using harmless viruses that convert mechanical energy into electricity.

The scientists tested their approach by creating a generator that produces enough current to operate a small liquid-crystal display. It works by tapping a finger on a postage stamp-sized electrode coated with specially engineered viruses. The viruses convert the force of the tap into an electric charge.

Their generator is the first to produce electricity by harnessing the piezoelectric properties of a biological material. Piezoelectricity is the accumulation of a charge in a solid in response to mechanical stress.

The milestone could lead to tiny devices that harvest electrical energy from the vibrations of everyday tasks such as shutting a door or climbing stairs.

It also points to a simpler way to make microelectronic devices. That’s because the viruses arrange themselves into an orderly film that enables the generator to work. Self-assembly is a much sought after goal in the finicky world of nanotechnology.

The first part of the video shows how Berkeley Lab scientists harness the piezoelectric properties of a virus to convert the force of a finger tap into electricity. The second part shows the “viral-electric” generators in action, first by pressing only one of the generators, then by pressing two at the same time, which produces more current.

The scientists describe their work in a May 13 advance online publication of the journal Nature Nanotechnology.

“More research is needed, but our work is a promising first step toward the development of personal power generators, actuators for use in nano-devices, and other devices based on viral electronics,” says Seung-Wuk Lee, a faculty scientist in Berkeley Lab’s Physical Biosciences Division and a UC Berkeley associate professor of bioengineering.

He conducted the research with a team that includes Ramamoorthy Ramesh, a scientist in Berkeley Lab’s Materials Sciences Division and a professor of materials sciences, engineering, and physics at UC Berkeley; and Byung Yang Lee of Berkeley Lab’s Physical Biosciences Division.

The M13 bacteriophage has a length of 880 nanometers and a diameter of 6.6 nanometers. It’s coated with approximately 2700 charged proteins that enable scientists to use the virus as a piezoelectric nanofiber.

The piezoelectric effect was discovered in 1880 and has since been found in crystals, ceramics, bone, proteins, and DNA. It’s also been put to use. Electric cigarette lighters and scanning probe microscopes couldn’t work without it, to name a few applications.

But the materials used to make piezoelectric devices are toxic and very difficult to work with, which limits the widespread use of the technology.

Lee and colleagues wondered if a virus studied in labs worldwide offered a better way. The M13 bacteriophage only attacks bacteria and is benign to people. Being a virus, it replicates itself by the millions within hours, so there’s always a steady supply. It’s easy to genetically engineer. And large numbers of the rod-shaped viruses naturally orient themselves into well-ordered films, much the way that chopsticks align themselves in a box.

These are the traits that scientists look for in a nano building block. But the Berkeley Lab researchers first had to determine if the M13 virus is piezoelectric. Lee turned to Ramesh, an expert in studying the electrical properties of thin films at the nanoscale. They applied an electrical field to a film of M13 viruses and watched what happened using a special microscope. Helical proteins that coat the viruses twisted and turned in response—a sure sign of the piezoelectric effect at work.

The bottom 3-D atomic force microscopy image shows how the viruses align themselves side-by-side in a film. The top image maps the film’s structure-dependent piezoelectric properties, with higher voltages a lighter color.

Next, the scientists increased the virus’s piezoelectric strength. They used genetic engineering to add four negatively charged amino acid residues to one end of the helical proteins that coat the virus. These residues increase the charge difference between the proteins’ positive and negative ends, which boosts the voltage of the virus.

The scientists further enhanced the system by stacking films composed of single layers of the virus on top of each other. They found that a stack about 20 layers thick exhibited the strongest piezoelectric effect.

The only thing remaining to do was a demonstration test, so the scientists fabricated a virus-based piezoelectric energy generator. They created the conditions for genetically engineered viruses to spontaneously organize into a multilayered film that measures about one square centimeter. This film was then sandwiched between two gold-plated electrodes, which were connected by wires to a liquid-crystal display.

When pressure is applied to the generator, it produces up to six nanoamperes of current and 400 millivolts of potential. That’s enough current to flash the number “1” on the display, and about a quarter the voltage of a triple A battery.

“We’re now working on ways to improve on this proof-of-principle demonstration,” says Lee. “Because the tools of biotechnology enable large-scale production of genetically modified viruses, piezoelectric materials based on viruses could offer a simple route to novel microelectronics in the future.”

From left, Byung Yang Lee, Seung-Wuk Lee, and Ramamoorthy Ramesh developed the “viral-electric” generator. (Photos by Roy Kaltschmidt of Berkeley Lab. The video and scientific images are courtesy of Seung-Wuk Lee’s lab)

Berkeley Lab’s Laboratory Directed Research and Development fund and the National Science Foundation supported this work.

###

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory addresses the world’s most urgent scientific challenges by advancing sustainable energy, protecting human health, creating new materials, and revealing the origin and fate of the universe. Founded in 1931, Berkeley Lab’s scientific expertise has been recognized with 13 Nobel prizes. The University of California manages Berkeley Lab for the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Science. For more, visit www.lbl.gov.

Additional information:

• The paper, “Virus-based piezoelectric energy generation,” appeared as an advance online publication on Nature Nanotechnology’s website on May 13.

TAGS: energy, nanotechnology

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via newscenter.lbl.gov